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Drugs Dictionary (Kamus Narkoba)

2010-01-26T09:35:00.000-08:00

Many Kinds of Drugs listed here (in Bahasa Indonesia) Kamus Narkoba other dictionaries will be listed soon

Index Of Drugs types (by BNN - National Narcotics Board (Indonesian Police Special Task Force working on drugs abuse prevention & rehabilitation)

Alcohol Detoxification

2010-01-26T09:34:00.001-08:00

Alcoholism has spread like an epidemic everywhere around the globe. It is not only the young, but also the older people who are succumbing to alcohol addiction. It is often difficult to detect if a person is an alcoholic because they may have been drinking and yet doing all the work and activities that any “normal” person does. They are called functional alcoholics as they are very unaware of their problem, having always been able to perform all the day-to-day activities.

That is the reason why many people continue to drink and eventually get addicted to it. It is difficult to combat alcoholism and it if you choose to do so, it is a life-long battle which you have to fight. You need to have the will, determination and more importantly, the motivation, to see it through. Some people also get involved in various self-help groups where they meet others who are battling the same problem and can offer support to one another.

Alcoholism is hard to detect, but once you know what the problem is, then alcohol detox is the next step. While going through this, you may experience many symptoms of withdrawal, which are not at all pleasant. Some people have alcohol detox symptoms like tremors, where you begin to shake involuntarily and uncontrollably. These tremors are quite noticeable as you will not be able to hold anything in your hands, because you are shaking restlessly. Some people may even experience abdominal pains accompanied by vomiting. This happens as a result of the alcohol detox, when the body starts to rid itself of the harmful toxins which have been stored inside the body for so long.

Some even suffer from physiological problems and have psychosomatic symptoms. The thought of giving up alcohol makes them angry and overwhelms them. They can even become violent suddenly, when it is least expected. They may behave unpleasantly without knowing it and will only realize it when they have come to their senses.

It is important to know and identify the problems behind the addiction. Participating in support groups can play a very positive role for the alcoholic in fighting against drinking. This way he or she can open up and talk freely about their feelings and concerns with others who are also going through alcohol detox or have already gone through it. The person needs to have emotional support from family and friends as well, as this can help him or her undergo the therapy, knowing that they are not alone and that there are people around who care for them.

Nutritional therapies and medications are also known to be helpful to control alcohol detox symptoms. Vitamin B6 is also given, as according to research, this is a vitamin that seems to deficient in many alcoholics. Supplements are given to fight the urge for alcohol. Seeking help from a trained professional is the wisest thing that you could do. To overcome this destructive disease, there are support groups, medical and alternative therapies available. With will, determination and the willingness to deal with the problems behind the addiction, you can come out of it.

Drugs & Alcohol

2009-09-14T19:55:00.000-07:00

People have been using substances to lift their spirits for millennia. Techniques for fermenting beer & related tipples are known from Egypt & Sumeria 4000 years ago, & they soon spread across the inhabited world. Coca leaves (the source of cocaine), tobacco, & caffeine were also popular with ancient cultures.
Humans may even have an evolutionary pre-disposition to seek out narcotics, even though they can be addictive & damaging. Some people may have genes which make them more genetically prone to drug addiction than others. Even some animals - jaguars, lemurs & bees, for example - have a habit of getting high.
Alcohol - Some experts believe that the world's first impromptu breweries might have been created when grain stores became drenched with rain & warmed in the sun. Ever since, humans have discovered that alcohol reduces their inhibitions, impairs their judgement, affects sexual desire & performance, creates beer bellies & leads to hangovers (& dubious cures).

There is an enormous amount of research on drug taking, examining both legal highs, such as alcohol, nicotine & caffeine, & illegal stimulants, such as marijuana, LSD, cocaine, ecstasy, amphetamines, heroin & magic mushrooms & the so-called date-rape drugs rohypnol & GHB.

Binge drinking is an ever-increasing health concern, & when not consumed in moderation, alcohol can lead to liver problems, brain destroy & infertility. Drinking whilst pregnant can also destroy the unborn kid. It is not all bad news though: studies show that some types of booze, such as red wine, are rich in antioxidant polyphenols which can help prevent heart disease & cancer.

Marijuana, six time the preserve of hippies, is now regularly smoked by millions of people in the US & UK. Around 14.6 million Americans have used marijuana in the last 30 days. Though still controversial, support for controlled legalisation of this most common illegal drug is growing.

However, detractors argue that the long-term effects of smoking dope on the brain are unclear, that it decreases fertility, damages the unborn foetus, can contribute to cot death in kids born to dope-smoking parents, & may lead to memory loss, schizophrenia, depression & other illnesses.

That support is bolstered by research showing that cannabis (& psychoactive extracts such as THC or cannabinoids) can provide relief for sufferers of multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease & epilepsy. Cannabis can also help to improve appetite & decrease weight loss in AIDS victims & may be able to slow the growth of cancerous tumours.

Ecstasy, or MDMA, was allegedly first prescribed as an anti-depressant. It was also used by American marriage counsellors & psychotherapists in the 1970s. The drug made patients feel less anxious & more open, accepting & empathic. But notoriety for the drug in the UK did not come until it was popularised by the rave dance scene in fields & warehouses in the late 1980s. Use of the drug is now common in main stream clubs & 2 million or more British youngsters pop the tablets at weekends. Clubbers enjoy the feelings of emotional closeness, rushes of energy, increased stamina heightened sense of touch & other effects.

Critics say that regular ecstasy use is a recipe for causing memory loss & lasting destroy to the brain's serotonin-producing neurons. Users can die from fatal overheating or a unsafe build-up of water on the brain. Ecstasy causes other problems such as stifling sex drive & damaging kids in the womb.

Cocaine comes from the coca plant, the leaves of which have been used by Native South Americans for 3000 years as a mild stimulant. Cocaine itself was first developed as a local anaesthetic, but has been a popular street drug since the 1970s. Today it is used by millions of people in the US alone & up to 150,000 finish up in emergency rooms with heart attacks or other side effects. It acts on the brain's dopamine method, & is thought to mimic the thrill of desire & anticipation.

Tablets contaminated with other compounds are part of the problem & plenty of tests have been developed to check for purity. Controversial research found evidence of a link between ecstasy & Parkinson's disease in 2002, though the finding was later retracted. Other animal studies conversely hinted that ecstasy might actually help treat the symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Some experts point to the fact that despite the drug's giant popularity, ecstasy deaths remain very rare: downhill skiing kills more people. Controversial medical trials are testing the use of MDMA to treat post-traumatic stress disorder in victims of rape & violent crime.

Cocaine is highly addictive - plenty of users become dependent after a year or one, & some research suggests that a single dose could get you hooked. Use of the drug is linked to high blood pressure, deadly heart conditions & violent behaviour. Therapies to help addicts conquer their dependence include vaccines & related methods, which use antibodies to bind cocaine & stop it reaching its target in the brain. Other drugs can block cocaine cravings.

Nicotine comes from the leaves of the tobacco plant & was first cultivated & used by Native Americans 8000 years ago. Early European settlers in the Americas cultivated it as a funds crop for export, & smoking became popular back home in Europe during the 1600s. These days, an estimated 46 million Americans smoke 420 billion cigarettes per year. Smoking was thought to have few ill effects until researchers noticed that lung cancer prevalence rose enormously, along with the popularity of cigarette smoking in the twentieth century.

Today the 40-plus known carcinogenic chemicals in tobacco smoke are linked to cancers including those of the stomach, lung, pancreas, cervix & kidney. Research has also shown that nicotine or other tobacco chemicals can increase the speed of growth of tumours, cause cot death in the children of smokers, kill brain cells & lead to heart disease, strokes, emphysema & even mental illness.

Passive smoking is also widely thought to be unsafe activity & has been linked to an increase in cancers, heart disease & stroke, as well as lower than average IQ levels in children. Some people may be genetically-prone to nicotine addiction, & teenagers are more likely to become addicted than adults. Scientists are developing a controversial vaccine which could be used to protect young people against cigarette addiction.

The drug increases blood pressure & stimulates the heart lungs & other organs. There's been few verifiable links between caffeine & serious health problems, though research has shown it can increase sensitivity to pain, cause panic attacks & play havoc with sleep cycles. Some role in heart disease & cancer has been suggested, but not proven. Research has hinted that caffeine perhaps offers some unusual benefits by protecting against diabetes & radiation poisoning. Critics argue that addictive caffeine - supposedly a flavouring - is used by soft drink manufacturers to keep punters coming back for more.

Caffeine is found in around 60 known plant species, is a key ingredient of coffee, tea & chocolate, & is the world's most popular stimulant. Tea has been popular in China for at least 3000 years, but possibly for much longer. Caffeine is used by billions of people to boost alertness.

Drug Rehabilitation Centre Worldwide

2009-08-08T07:47:00.000-07:00

If you need info about Drug Rehabilitation, here's some information about Drug & Alcohol Rehabilitation & Treatment Center Worldwide

CANADA
USA
INDONESIA
JAPAN
NEW ZEALAND
UNITED KINGDOM
NETHERLANDS
FRANCE
THAILAND
SOUTH AFRICA
INDIA
EGYPT
EUROPE
MALAYSIA
PHILIPHINES

Treatments

2009-07-30T06:59:00.000-07:00

Drug addiction is a complex but treatable brain disease. It is characterized by compulsive drug craving, seeking, and use that persist even in the face of severe adverse consequences. For most people, drug addiction becomes chronic, with relapses possible even after long periods of abstinence. As a chronic, recurring illness, addiction may require continued treatments to increase the intervals between relapses and diminish their intensity. Through treatment tailored to individual needs, people with drug addiction can recover and lead productive lives. The ultimate goal of drug addiction treatment is to enable an individual to achieve lasting abstinence, but the immediate goals are to reduce drug abuse, improve the patient's ability to function, and minimize the medical and social complications of drug abuse and addiction. Like people with diabetes or heart disease, people in treatment for drug addiction will need to change behavior to adopt a more healthful lifestyle.

Treatments for drug addiction vary widely according to the types of drugs involved, amount of drugs used, duration of the drug addiction, medical complications and the social needs of the individual. Determining the best type of recovery program for an addicted person depends on a number of factors, including: personality, drug(s) of addiction, concept of spirituality or religion, mental or physical illness, and local availability and affordability of programs.

Many different ideas circulate regarding what is considered a "successful" outcome in the recovery from addiction. It is widely accepted that abstinence from addictive substances is a successful outcome. However, abstinence is difficult to achieve in practice. Programs that emphasize controlled drinking exist for alcohol addiction. Opiate replacement therapy has been a medical standard of treatment for opioid addiction for many years.

Treatments and attitudes toward drug addiction vary widely among different countries. In the USA and developing countries, the goal of treatment for drug dependence is generally total abstinence from all drugs. While ideal, this is in practice very difficult to achieve. Other countries, particularly in Europe, argue the aims of treatment for drug dependence are more complex, with treatment aims including reduction in use to the point that drug use no longer interferes with normal activities such as work and family commitments, shifts the addict away from more dangerous routes of drug administration such as injecting to safer routes such as oral administration, reduction in crime committed by drug addicts, and treatment of other comorbid conditions such as AIDS, hepatitis and mental health disorders. These kind of outcomes can be achieved without eliminating drug use completely. Drug treatment programs in Europe often report more favourable outcomes than those in the USA because the criteria for measuring success are functional rather than abstinence based. The supporters of programs with total abstinence from drugs as a goal stress that enabling further drug use just means prolonged drug use and risks an increase in addiction and complications from addiction.

Residential

Residential drug treatment can be broadly divided into two camps: 12 step programs or Therapeutic Communities. 12 step programs have the advantage of coming with an instant social support network though some find the spiritual context not to their taste. In the UK drug treatment is generally moving towards a more integrated approach with rehabs offering a variety of approaches. These other programs may use Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy an approach that looks at the relationship between thoughts feelings and behaviors, recognizing that a change in any of these areas can affect the whole. CBT sees addiction as a behavior rather than a disease and subsequently curable, or rather, unlearnable. CBT programs recognize that for some individuals controlled use is a more realistic possibility.

12 step program

One of many recovery methods is the 12 step recovery program, with prominent examples including Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous. They are commonly known and used for a variety of addictions for the individual addicted and the family of the individual. Substance-abuse rehabilitation (or "rehab") centers frequently offer a residential treatment program for the seriously addicted in order to isolate the patient from drugs and interactions with other users and dealers. Outpatient clinics usually offer a combination of individual counseling and group counseling. Frequently a physician or psychiatrist will assist with prescriptions the side effects of the addiction (the most common side effect that the medications can help is anxiety).

In a survey of treatment providers from three separate institutions (the National Association of Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Counselors, Rational Recovery Systems and the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors) measuring the treatment provider's responses on the Spiritual Belief Scale (a scale measuring belief in the four spiritual characteristics AA identified by Ernest Kurtz); the scores were found to explain 41% of the variance in the treatment provider's responses on the Addiction Belief Scale (a scale measuring adherence to the disease model or the free-will model addiction).(Source:WIKIPEDIA)

Illegal Drug Trade

2009-07-30T06:42:00.000-07:00

The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global black market consisting of the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of illegal controlled drugs. Most jurisdictions prohibit trade, except under license, of many types of drugs by drug control laws. Some drugs, notably alcohol and tobacco, are outside the scope of these laws, but may be subject to control under other laws.

The illicit drug trade operates similarly to other underground markets. Various drug cartels specialize in the separate processes along the supply chain, often localized to maximize production efficiency and minimize damages caused by law enforcement. Depending on the profitability of each layer, cartels usually vary in size, consistency, and organization. The chain ranges from low-level street dealers who may be individual drug users themselves, through street gangs and contractor-like middle men, up to multinational empires that rival governments in size.

Illegal drugs may be grown in wilderness areas, on farms, produced in indoor/outdoor residential gardens, indoor hydroponics grow-ops, or manufactured in drug labs located anywhere from a residential basement to an abandoned facility. The common characteristic binding these production locations is that they are discreet to avoid detection, and thus they may be located in any ordinary setting without raising notice. Much illegal drug cultivation and manufacture takes place in developing nations, although production also occurs in the developed world.

In locales where the drug trade is illegal, police departments as well as courts and prisons may expend significant resources in pursuing drug-related crime. Additionally, through the influence of a number of black market players, corruption is a problem, especially in poorer societies.

Consumption of illegal drugs is widespread globally. While consumers avoid taxation by buying on the black market, the high costs involved in protecting trade routes from law enforcement lead to inflated prices.

Additionally, various laws criminalize certain kinds of trade of drugs that are otherwise legal (for example, untaxed cigarettes). In these cases, the drugs are often manufactured and partially distributed by the normal legal channels, and diverted at some point into illegal channels.

Finally, many governments restrict the production and sale of large classes of drugs through prescription systems.
Trade of specific drugs

The price per gram of heroin is typically 8 to 10 times that of cocaine on US streets. Generally in Europe (except the transit countries Portugal and the Netherlands), a purported gram of street heroin, which is usually between 0.7 and 0.8 grams light to dark brown powder consisting of 5-10%, less commonly up to 20%, heroin base, is between 30 and 70 euros, which makes for an effective price of pure heroin per gram of between 300 and 2000 euros.

The purity of street cocaine in Europe is usually in the same range as it is for heroin, the price being between 50 and 100 euros per between 0.7 and 1.0 grams. This totals to a cocaine price range between 500 and 2000 euros.

Anabolic steroids
Main article: Anabolic steroids
According to the Office of National Drug Control Policy, anabolic steroids are relatively easy to smuggle into the United States. Once there, they are often sold at gyms and competitions as well as through mail and internet operations.

Cannabis
A box of cannabis.
Main article: Cannabis (drug)

In World Drug report 2006 UNODC focused on The New Cannabis, distribution of stronger marijuana with more THC and its health effects.

Most of the high grade cannabis sold in the U.S. is grown in hidden grow operations indoors. The number one producer is California with an annual revenue of nearly 14 billion dollars in production, Tennessee is second with nearly 5 billion in production, Kentucky is third with around 4.5 billion, Hawaii is fourth with close to 4 billion, and Washington is fifth with a little over a billion.

Alcohol
Main article: Alcoholic beverage

In some areas of the world, particularly in and around the Arabian peninsula, the trade of alcohol is strictly prohibited. For example, Pakistan bans the trade because of its large Muslim population. Similarly, Saudi Arabia forbids the importation of alcohol into its kingdom, however, alcohol is smuggled in very high quantities. In other areas it is considered like any other beverage, and is legal.

Pure alcohol or liquids with high alcohol content over a certain percentage or proof, calculated by volume or weight, are also banned in many countries.

Tobacco
Main article: Tobacco

The illegal trade of tobacco is motivated primarily by increasingly heavy taxation. When tobacco products such as name-brand cigarettes are traded illegally, the cost is as little as one third that of retail price due to the lack of taxes being applied as the product is sold from manufacturer to buyer to retailer. It has been reported that smuggling one truckload of cigarettes within the United States leads to a profit of 2 million U.S. dollars.
Search Wikinews Wikinews has related news: Nearly three million contraband cigarettes seized by Canadian and U.S. authorities

The source of the illegally-traded tobacco is often the proceeds from other crimes, such as store and transportation robberies.

Sometimes, the illegal trade of tobacco is motivated by differences in taxes in two jurisdictions, including smuggling across international borders. Smuggling of tobacco from the US into Canada has been problematic, and sometimes political where trans-national native communities are involved in the illegal trade.

The kingdom of Bhutan made the sale of tobacco illegal in December 2004, and since this time a flourishing black market in tobacco products has sprung up. In 2006, tobacco and betel nut were the most commonly seized illicit drugs in Bhutan.

Temazepam
Main article: Temazepam

Temazepam, which is a strong hypnotic benzodiazepine, is being illicitly manufactured in clandestine laboratories (called jellie labs) to supply the increasingly high demand for the hypnotic drug internationally. Most clandestine temazepam labs are in Eastern Europe. The way in which they manufacture the temazepam is through chemical alteration of diazepam, oxazepam or lorazepam.Clandestine "jellie labs" have been identified and shutdown in Russia, Ukraine, Czech Republic, Latvia and Belarus.

In the United Kingdom, temazepam is the most widely-abused legal, prescription drug. It's also the most commonly abused benzodiazepine in Finland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, India, Russia, China, New Zealand, Australia and some parts of Southeast Asia. In Sweden it has been banned due to a problem with drug abuse issues and a high rate of death caused by temazepam alone relative to other drugs of its group. Surveys in many countries showed that temazepam, heroin, cocaine, MDMA, cannabis, nimetazepam, and amphetamines rank among the top drugs most frequently abused.

Opium
Main article: Opium

International illicit trade in opium is relatively rare. Major smuggling organizations prefer to further refine opium into heroin before shipping to the consumer countries, since a given quantity of heroin is worth much more than an equivalent amount of opium. As such, heroin is more profitable, and much stronger, because heroin metabolizes directly into the main naturally occurring psychoactive substance in opium—morphine.

Heroin/Morphine
Main articles: Heroin and Morphine

Heroin is smuggled into the United States and Europe from areas such as the Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia); with Afghanistan currently being "the world's largest exporter of heroin". Allegedly, during the Vietnam war, drug lords such as Ike Atkinson used to smuggle hundreds of kilos of heroin to the U.S. in coffins of dead American soldiers (see Cadaver Connection). Since that time it has become more difficult for drugs to be imported into the United States than it had been in previous decades, but that does not stop the drug industry from getting their drugs onto U.S. soil. Purity levels vary greatly by region with, for the most part, Northeastern cities having the most pure heroin in the United States (according to a recently released report by the DEA, Camden, New Jersey and Newark, New Jersey and Philadelphia, have the purest street grade A heroin in the country). Heroin is a very easily smuggled drug because a small, quarter-sized vial can contain hundreds of doses. Heroin is also widely (and usually illegally) used as a powerful and addictive drug that produces intense euphoria, which often gradually disappears with increasing tolerance. This 'rush' comes from its high lipid solubility provided by the two acetyl groups, resulting in a very rapid penetration of the blood-brain barrier after use. Once in the blood stream, heroin is rapidly converted to morphine. The morphine then binds to the opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, causing the subjective effects. Heroin and morphine can be taken or administered in a number of ways, including snorting and injection. They may also be smoked by inhaling the vapors produced when heated from below, usually on aluminum foil (known as "chasing the dragon"). Penalties for smuggling heroin and/or morphine are often harsh in most countries. Some countries will readily hand down a death sentence or years in prison for the illegal smuggling of heroin or morphine, which are both, internationally, Schedule I drugs under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.

Methamphetamine
Main article: Methamphetamine

In some areas of the United States, the trade of methamphetamine is rampant. Because of the ease of production and its addiction rate, methamphetamine is a favorite amongst many drug distributors. The most common "street names" for meth are "speed", "crystal", and "ice".

According to the Community Epidemiology Work Group, the numbers of clandestine methamphetamine laboratory incidents reported to the National Clandestine Laboratory Database decreased from 1999 to 2004. During this same period, methamphetamine lab incidents increased in midwestern States (Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, and Ohio), and in Pennsylvania. In 2004, more lab incidents were reported in Missouri (2,788) and Illinois (1,058) than in California (764). In 2003, methamphetamine lab incidents reached new highs in Georgia (250), Minnesota (309), and Texas (677). There were only seven methamphetamine lab incidents reported in Hawaii in 2004, though nearly 59 percent of substance abuse treatment admissions (excluding alcohol) were for primary methamphetamine abuse during the first six months of 2004. As of 2007, Missouri leads the United States in clandestine lab seizures, with 1,268 incidents reported. Often K9 units are used for detecting rolling meth labs which can be concealed on large vehicles, or transported on something as small as a motorcycle. These labs are more difficult to detect than stationary ones, and can be often obscured with the legal cargo on big trucks.

Methamphetamine is sometimes used in an injectable form, placing users and their partners at risk for transmission of HIV and hepatitis C. "Meth" can also be inhaled, most commonly on aluminum foil or through a Pyrex test tube or light bulb fashioned into a pipe. This method is reported to give "an unnatural high" and a "brief intense rush" to its users.

In South Africa the abuse of methamphetamine has reached epidemic proportions in especially the Cape Flats area of Cape Town where it is called "tik" or "tik-tik". Youngsters as young as eight are abusing the substance where it is smoked in crude glass vials constructed from light bulbs. Since methamphetamine is easy to produce the substance is manufactured in staggering quantities in "backyard" factories. After the new South African government came into power, the South African Narcotics Bureau (SANAB) was disbanded, allowing dealers an unprecedented freedom of operation and causing a simultaneous drop in prices and rise in availability.

Anti-Addictive Drugs

2009-07-22T07:03:00.000-07:00

Other forms of treatment include replacement drugs such as methadone or buprenorphine, used as a substitute for illicit opiate drugs. Although these drugs are themselves addictive, opioid dependency is so severe that a way to stabilize opioid use is required. Once stabilized, treatment enters maintenance or tapering phases. In the United States, opiate replacement therapy is tightly regulated in methadone clinics and under the DATA 2000 legislation. In some countries, other opioid derivatives such as levomethadyl acetate, dihydrocodeine, dihydroetorphine and even heroin are used as substitute drugs for illegal street opiates, with different drugs being used depending on the needs of the individual patient.

Substitute drugs for other forms of drug dependence have historically been less successful than opioid substitute treatment, but some limited success has been seen with drugs such as dextroamphetamine to treat stimulant addiction, and clomethiazole to treat alcohol addiction. Bromocriptine and desipramine have been reported to be effective for treatment of cocaine but not amphetamine addiction.

Other pharmacological treatments for alcohol addiction include drugs like naltrexone, disulfiram, acamprosate and topiramate, but rather than substituting for alcohol, these drugs are intended to reduce the desire to drink, either by directly reducing cravings as with acamprosate and topiramate, or by producing unpleasant effects when alcohol is consumed, as with disulfiram. These drugs can be effective if treatment is maintained, but compliance can be an issue as alcoholic patients often forget to take their medication, or discontinue use because of excessive side effects. Additional drugs acting on glutamate neurotransmission such as modafinil, lamotrigine, gabapentin and memantine have also been proposed for use in treating addiction to alcohol and other drugs.

Opioid antagonists such as naltrexone and nalmefene have also been used successfully in the treatment of alcohol addiction, which is often particularly challenging to treat. These drugs have also been used to a lesser extent for long-term maintenance treatment of former opiate addicts, but cannot be started until the patient has been abstinent for an extended period, otherwise they can trigger acute opioid withdrawal symptoms.

Treatment of stimulant addiction can often be difficult, with substitute drugs often being ineffective, although newer drugs such as nocaine, vanoxerine and modafinil may have more promise in this area, as well as the GABAB agonist baclofen. Another strategy that has recently been successfully trialled used a combination of the benzodiazepine antagonist flumazenil with hydroxyzine and gabapentin for the treatment of methamphetamine addiction.

Another area in which drug treatment has been widely used is in the treatment of nicotine addiction. Various drugs have been used for this purpose such as bupropion, mecamylamine and the more recently developed varenicline. The cannaboinoid antagonist rimonabant has also been trialled for treatment of nicotine addiction but has not been widely adopted for this purpose.

Ibogaine is a psychoactive drug that specifically interrupts the addictive response, and is currently being studied for its effects upon cocaine, heroin, nicotine, and SSRI addicts. Alternative medicine clinics offering ibogaine treatment have appeared along the U.S. border. A synthetic analogue of ibogaine, 18-methoxycoronaridine has also been developed which has similar efficacy but less side effects, however this drug is still being tested in animals and human trials have not yet been carried out.

Alternative therapies

Alternative therapies, such as acupuncture, are used by some practitioners to alleviate the symptoms of drug addiction. In 1997, the American Medical Association (AMA) adopted as policy the following statement after a report on a number of alternative therapies including acupuncture:

There is little evidence to confirm the safety or efficacy of most alternative therapies. Much of the information currently known about these therapies makes it clear that many have not been shown to be efficacious. Well-designed, stringently controlled research should be done to evaluate the efficacy of alternative therapies.

Acupuncture has been shown to be no more effective than control treatments in the treatment of opiate dependence. Acupuncture, acupressure, laser therapy and electrostimulation have no demonstrated efficacy for smoking cessation.

The Physiological Basis of Drug Addiction

2009-07-22T06:53:00.000-07:00

Researchers have conducted numerous investigations using animal models and functional brain imaging on humans in order to define the mechanisms underlying drug addiction in the brain. This intriguing topic incorporates several areas of the brain and synaptic changes, or neuroplasticity, which occurs in these areas.

Acute effects

Acute (or recreational) drug use causes the release and prolonged action of dopamine and serotonin within the reward circuit. Different types of drugs produce these effects by different methods. Dopamine (DA) appears to harbor the largest effect and its action is characterized. DA binds to the D1 receptor, triggering a signaling cascade within the cell. cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) phosphorylates cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), a transcription factor, which induces the synthesis of certain genes including C-Fos.

Reward circuit

When examining the biological basis of drug addiction, one must first understand the pathways in which drugs act and how drugs can alter those pathways. The reward circuit, also referred to as the mesolimbic system, is characterized by the interaction of several areas of the brain.

* The ventral tegmental area (VTA) consists of dopaminergic neurons which respond to glutamate. These cells respond when stimuli indicative of a reward are present. The VTA supports learning and sensitization development and releases dopamine (DA) into the forebrain. These neurons also project and release DA into the nucleus accubems, through the mesolimbic pathway. Virtually all drugs causing drug addiction increase the dopamine release in the mesolimbic pathway, in addition to their specific effects.
* The nucleus accumbens (NAcc) consists mainly of medium-spiny projection neurons (MSNs), which are GABA neurons. The NAcc is associated with acquiring and eliciting conditioned behaviors and involved in the increased sensitivity to drugs as addiction progresses.
* The prefrontal cortex, more specifically the anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal cortices, is important for the integration of information which contributes to whether a behavior will be elicited. It appears to be the area in which motivation originates and the salience of stimuli are determined.
* The basolateral amygdala projects into the NAcc and is thought to be important for motivation as well.
* More evidence is pointing towards the role of the hippocampus in drug addiction because of its importance in learning and memory. Much of this evidence stems from investigations manipulating cells in the hippocampus alters dopamine levels in NAcc and firing rates of VTA dopaminergic cells.

Stress response
See also: Stress response

In addition to the reward circuit, it is hypothesized that stress mechanisms also play a role in addiction. Koob and Kreek have hypothesized that during drug use corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and other stress systems in the extended amygdala. This activation influences the dysregulated emotional state associated with drug addiction. They have found that as drug use escalates, so does the presence of CRF in human cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). In rat models, the separate use of CRF antagonists and CRF receptor antagonists both decreased self-administration of the drug of study. Other studies in this review showed a dysregulation in other hormones associated with the HPA axis, including enkephalin which is an endogenous opioid peptides that regulates pain. It also appears that the µ-opioid receptor system, which enkephalin acts on, is influential in the reward system and can regulate the expression of stress hormones.

Behavior

Understanding how learning and behavior work in the reward circuit can help understand the action of addictive drugs. Drug addiction is characterized by strong, drug seeking behaviors in which the addict persistently craves and seeks out drugs, despite the knowledge of harmful consequences.Addictive drugs produce a reward, which is the euphoric feeling resulting from sustained DA concentrations in the synaptic cleft of neurons in the brain. Operant conditioning is exhibited in drug addicts as well as laboratory mice, rats, and primates; they are able to associate an action or behavior, in this case seeking out the drug, with a reward, which is the effect of the drug. Evidence shows that this behavior is most likely a result of the synaptic changes which have occurred due to repeated drug exposure. The drug seeking behavior is induced by glutamatergic projections from the prefrontal cortex to the NAc. This idea is supported with data from experiments showing the drug seeking behavior can be prevented following the inhibition of AMPA glutamate receptors and glutamate release in the NAc.

Allostasis

Allostasis is the process of achieving stability through changes in behavior as well as physiological features. As a person progresses into drug addiction, he or she appears to enter a new allostatic state, defined as divergence from normal levels of change which persist in a chronic state. Addiction to drugs can cause damage to your brain and body as you enter the pathological state; the cost stemming from damage is known as allostatic load. The dysregulation of allostasis gradually occurs as the reward from the drug decreases and the ability to overcome the depressed state following drug use begins to decrease as well. The resulting allostatic load creates a constant state of depression relative to normal allostatic changes. What pushes this decrease is the propensity of drug users to take the drug before the brain and body have returned to original allostatic levels, producing a constant state of stress. Therefore, the presence of environmental stressors may induce stronger drug seeking behaviors.

Neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity is the putative mechanism behind learning and memory. It involves physical changes in the synapses between two communicating neurons, characterized by increased gene expression, altered cell signaling, and the formation of new synapses between the communicating neurons. When addictive drugs are present in the system, they appear to hijack this mechanism in the reward system so that motivation is geared towards procuring the drug rather than natural rewards.Depending on the history of drug use, excitatory synapses in the nucleus accumbens(NAc) experience two types of neuroplasticity: long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD). Using mice as a model, Kourrich et al. showed that chronic exposure to cocaine increases the strength of synapses in NAc after a 10-14 day withdrawal period, while strengthened synapses did not appear within a 24 hour withdrawal period after repeated cocaine exposure. A single dose of cocaine did not elicit any attributes of a strengthened synapse. When drug-experienced mice were challenged with one dose of cocaine, synaptic depression occurred. Therefore, it seems the history of cocaine exposure along with withdrawal times with affects the direction of glutamatergic plasticity in the NAc.

Once a person has transitioned from drug use to addiction, behavior becomes completely geared towards seeking the drug, even though addicts report the euphoria is not as intense as it once was. Despite the differing actions of drugs during acute use, the final pathway of addiction is the same. Another aspect of drug addiction is a decreased response to normal biological stimuli, such as food, sex, and social interaction. Through functional brain imaging of patients addicted to cocaine, scientists have been able to visualize increased metabolic activity in the anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal cortex (areas of the prefrontal cortex) in the brain of these subjects. The hyperactivity of these areas of the brain in addicted subjects is involved in the more intense motivation to find the drug rather than seeking natural rewards, as well as an addict’s decreased ability to overcome this urge. Brain imaging has also shown cocaine-addicted subjects to have decreased activity, as compared to non-addicts, in their prefrontal cortex when presented with stimuli associated with natural rewards. The transition from recreational drug use to addiction occurs in gradual stages and is produced by the effect of the drug of choice on the neuroplasticity of the neurons found in the reward circuit. During events preceding addiction, cravings are produced by the release of DA in the prefrontal cortex. As a person transitions from drug use to addiction, the release of dopamine (DA) in the NAc becomes unnecessary to produce cravings; rather, DA transmission decreases while increased metabolic activity in the orbitofrontal cortex contributes to cravings. At this time a person may experience the signs of depression if cocaine is not used. Before a person becomes addicted and exhibits drug-seeking behavior, there is a time period in which the neuroplasticity is reversible. Addiction occurs when drug-seeking behavior is exhibited and the vulnerability to relapse persists, despite prolonged withdrawal; these behavioral attributes are the result of neuroplastic changes which are brought about by repeated exposure to drugs and are relatively permanent.

The exact mechanism behind a drug molecule’s effect on synaptic plasticity is still unclear. However, neuroplasticity in glutamatergic projections seems to be a major result of repeated drug exposure. There are several ways in which glutamate transmission is altered. One way is by increasing presynaptic release of glutamate and the other is increased response to glutamate.The two main glutamate receptors involved are NMDAR and AMPAR. The expression of these receptors on the cell surface increases with repeated drug use. This type of synaptic plasticity results in LTP, which strengthens connections between two neurons; onset of this occurs quickly and the result is constant. In addition to glutamatergic neurons, dopaminergic neurons present in the VTA respond to glutamate and may be recruited earliest during neural adaptations caused by repeated drug exposure. As shown by Kourrich, et al., history of drug exposure and the time of withdrawal from last exposure appear to play an important role in the direction of plasticity in the neurons of the reward system.

An aspect of neuron development that may also play a part in drug-induced neuroplasticity is the presence of axon guidance molecules such as semaphorins and ephrins. After repeated cocaine treatment, altered expression (increase or decrease dependent on the type of molecule) of mRNA coding for axon guidance molecules occurred in rats. This may contribute to the alterations in the reward circuit characteristic of drug addiction.

Neurogenesis

Drug addiction also raises the issue of potential harmful effects on the development of new neurons in adults. Eisch and Harburg raise three new concepts they have extrapolated from the numerous recent studies on drug addiction. First, neurogenesis decreases as a result of repeated exposure to addictive drugs. A list of studies show that chronic use of opiates, psychostimulants, nicotine, and alcohol decrease neurogenesis in mice and rats. Second, this apparent decrease in neurogenesis seems to be independent of HPA axis activation. Other environmental factors other than drug exposure such as age, stress and exercise, can also have an effect of neurogenesis by regulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Mounting evidence suggests this for 3 reasons: small doses of opiates and psychostimulants increase coricosterone concentration in serum but with no effect of neurogenesis; although decreased neurogenesis is similar between self-administered and forced drug intake, activation of HPA axis is greater in self-administration subjects; and even after the inhibition of opiate induced increase of corticosterone, a decrease in neurogenesis occurred. These, of course, need to be investigated further. Last, addictive drugs appear to only affect proliferation in the subgranular zone (SGZ), rather than other areas associated with neurogenesis. The studies of drug use and neurogenesis may have implications on stem cell biology.

Psychological drug tolerance

The reward system is partly responsible for the psychological part of drug tolerance;

The CREB protein, a transcription factor activated by cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) immediately after a high, triggers genes that produce proteins such as dynorphin, which cuts off dopamine release and temporarily inhibits the reward circuit. In chronic drug users, a sustained activation of CREB thus forces a larger dose to be taken to reach the same effect. In addition it leaves the user feeling generally depressed and dissatisfied, and unable to find pleasure in previously enjoyable activities, often leading to a return to the drug for an additional "fix".

Sensitization

Sensitization is the increase in sensitivity to a drug after prolonged use. The proteins delta FosB and regulator of G-protein Signaling 9-2 (RGS9-2) are thought to be involved:

A transcription factor, known as delta FosB, is thought to activate genes that, counter to the effects of CREB, actually increase the user's sensitivity to the effects of the substance. Delta FosB slowly builds up with each exposure to the drug and remains activated for weeks after the last exposure—long after the effects of CREB have faded. The hypersensitivity that it causes is thought to be responsible for the intense cravings associated with drug addiction, and is often extended to even the peripheral cues of drug use, such as related behaviors or the sight of drug paraphernalia. There is some evidence that delta FosB even causes structural changes within the nucleus accumbens, which presumably helps to perpetuate the cravings, and may be responsible for the high incidence of relapse that occur in treated drug addicts.

Regulator of G-protein Signaling 9-2 (RGS9-2) has recently been the subject of several animal knockout studies. Animals lacking RGS 9-2 appear to have increased sensitivity to dopamine receptor agonists such as cocaine and amphetamines; over-expression of RGS 9-2 causes a lack of responsiveness to these same agonists. RGS 9-2 is believed to catalyze inactivation of the G-protein coupled D2 receptor by enhancing the rate of GTP hydrolysis of the G alpha subunit which transmits signals into the interior of the cell.

Individual mechanisms of effect

The basic mechanisms by which different substances activate the reward system are as described above, but vary slightly among drug classes.

Depressants

Depressants such as alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines work by increasing the affinity of the GABA receptor for its ligand; GABA. Narcotics such as morphine and heroin, work by mimicking endorphins—chemicals produced naturally by the body which have effects similar to dopamine—or by disabling the neurons that normally inhibit the release of dopamine in the reward system. These substances (sometimes called "downers") typically facilitate relaxation and pain-relief.

Stimulants

Stimulants such as amphetamines, nicotine, and cocaine, increase dopamine signaling in the reward system either by directly stimulating its release, or by blocking its absorption (see "reuptake"). These substances (sometimes called "uppers") typically cause heightened alertness and energy. They cause a pleasant feeling in the body, and euphoria, known as a high. This high wears off leaving the user feeling depressed. This sometimes makes them want more of the drug, and can worsen the addiction.

Drugs Causing Addiction

2009-07-21T06:51:00.000-07:00

Drugs known to cause addiction include illegal drugs as well as prescription or over-the-counter drugs, according to the definition of the American Society of Addiction Medicine.

* Stimulants:
o Amphetamine and Methamphetamine
o Caffeine
o Cocaine
o Nicotine

* Sedatives and Hypnotics:
o Alcohol
o Barbiturates
o Benzodiazepines, particularly flunitrazepam, triazolam, temazepam, and nimetazepam
o Methaqualone and the related quinazolinone sedative-hypnotics

* Opiate and Opioid analgesics
o Morphine and Codeine, the two naturally-occurring opiate analgesics
o Semi-synthetic opiates, such as Heroin (Diacetylmorphine), Oxycodone, Hydrocodone, and Hydromorphone
o Fully synthetic opioids, such as Fentanyl and its analogs, Meperidine/Pethidine, and Methadone

Addictive drugs also include a large number of substrates that are currently considered to have no medical value and are not available over the counter or by prescription.

An article in The Lancet compared the harm and addiction of 20 drugs, using a scale from 0 to 3 for physical addiction, psychological addiction, and pleasure to create a mean score for addiction. Caffeine was not included in the study. The results can be seen in the chart above.

Addictive potency

The addictive potency of drugs varies from substance to substance, and from individual to individual

Drugs such as codeine or alcohol, for instance, typically require many more exposures to addict their users than drugs such as heroin or cocaine. Likewise, a person who is psychologically or genetically predisposed to addiction is much more likely to suffer from it.

Although dependency on hallucinogens like LSD ("acid") and psilocybin (key hallucinogen in "magic mushrooms") is listed as Substance-Related Disorder in the DSM-IV, most psychologists do not classify them as addictive drugs.

Prevalence

The most common drug addictions are to legal substances such as:

* Caffeine
* Nicotine in the form of tobacco, particularly cigarettes
* Alcohol

Drug Addiction

2009-07-21T06:49:00.000-07:00

Drug addiction is a pathological condition. The disorder of addiction involves the progression of acute drug use to the development of drug-seeking behavior, the vulnerability to relapse, and the decreased, slowed ability to respond to naturally rewarding stimuli. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) has categorized three stages of addiction:
preoccupation/anticipation, binge/intoxication, and withdrawal/negative affect. These stages are characterized, respectively, everywhere by constant cravings and preoccupation with obtaining the substance; using more of the substance than necessary to experience the intoxicating effects; and experiencing tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, and decreased motivation for normal life activities. By the American Society of Addiction Medicine definition, drug addiction differs from drug dependence and drug tolerance.
It is, both among scientists and other writers, quite usual to allow the concept of drug addiction to include persons who are not drug abusers according to the definition of the American Society of Addiction Medicine. The term drug addiction is then used as a category which may include the same persons who under the DSM-IV can be given the diagnosis of substance dependence or substance abuse.

Drugs For Spiritual And Religious Use

2009-07-21T06:36:00.000-07:00

The spiritual and religious use of drugs has been occurring since the dawn of our species. Drugs that are considered to have spiritual or religious use are called entheogens. Some religions are based completely on the use of certain drugs. Entheogens are mostly hallucinogens, being either psychedelics or deliriants, but some are also stimulants and sedatives.

History of use

Hallucinogenic substances are among the oldest drugs used by human kind, as hallucinogenic substances naturally occur in mushrooms, cacti and a variety of other plants. Numerous cultures worldwide have endorsed the use of hallucinogens in medicine, religion and recreation, to varying extents, while some cultures have regulated or outright prohibited their use. In most developed countries today, the possession of many hallucinogens, even those found commonly in nature, is considered a crime punishable by fines, imprisonment or even death. In some countries, such as the United States and the Netherlands, partial deference may be granted to traditional religious use by members of indigenous ethnic minorities such as the Native American Church and the Santo Daime Church. Recently the União do Vegetal, a Christian-based religious sect whose composition is not primarily ethnicity-based, won a United States Supreme Court decision authorizing its use of ayahua

Traditional religious and shamanic use

Historically, hallucinogens have been most commonly used in religious or shamanic rituals. In this context they are referred to as entheogens, and they are used to facilitate healing, divination, communication with spirits, and coming-of-age ceremonies. Evidence exists for the use of entheogens in prehistoric times, as well as in numerous ancient cultures, including the Ancient Egyptian, Mycenaean, Ancient Greek, Vedic, Maya, Inca the and Aztec cultures. The Upper Amazon is home to the strongest extant entheogenic tradition; the Urarina of Peruvian Amazonia, for instance, continue to practice an elaborate system of ayahuasca shamanism, coupled with an animistic belief system.
Urarina shaman, 1988

The rise of the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) caused a decline of entheogenic use of hallucinogens use in its wake, as the authority of scripture and the priesthood gradually reduced the role granted to direct spiritual experience, especially by the laity. Examples of this development include the destruction of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which are now widely assumed to have involved entheogenic rituals, and the Great Witch Hunt of the Early Modern Age, in which practitioners of entheogenic rites in Western Europe were accused of associating with the devil. The Spanish conquistadores associated local entheogenic traditions of South America with heresy and satanism, and uprooted many of them, but nevertheless, some cultures there and elsewhere have kept their traditions alive to this day.

Drugs For Recreational Use

2009-07-21T06:34:00.000-07:00

Recreational drugs use is the use of psychoactive substances to have fun, for the experience, or to enhance an already positive experience. National laws prohibit the use of many different recreational drugs and medicinal drugs that have the potential for recreational use are heavily regulated. Many other recreational drugs on the other hand are legal, widely culturally accepted, and at the most have an age restriction on using and/or purchasing them. These include alcohol, tobacco, betel nut, and caffeine products.
Recreational drug use is the use of psychoactive drugs for recreational purposes rather than for work, approved medical or spiritual purposes, although the distinction is not always clear (often spiritual use is considered recreational). Since more forms of recreational drug use are being discovered to be self-medication, including using opioids sourced from illicit or other channels for pain-relief and pain-related problems as well as depression, social phobia and other recognised disorders, terms such as "unsupervised drug use", "non-, semi-, and sub-therapeutic drug use", and "allotherapeutic drug use" may be more exact terms to cover the range of activities under discussion. Also since not all nonsupervised drug use is illegal or illicit, these two terms are subsets and often misused.

Psychopharmacologist Ronald K. Siegel refers to intoxication as the "fourth drive," arguing that the human instinct to seek mind-altering substances has so much force and persistence that it functions like the human desire to satisfy hunger, thirst and the need for shelter.

Drugs For Medicational Use

2009-07-21T06:32:00.000-07:00

A medication or medicine is a drug taken to cure and/or ameliorate any symptoms of an illness or medical condition, or may be used as preventive medicine that has future benefits but does not treat any existing or pre-existing diseases or symptoms.
Dispensing of medication is often regulated by governments into three categories — over-the-counter (OTC) medications, which are available in pharmacies and supermarkets without special restrictions, behind-the-counter (BTC), which are dispensed by a pharmacist without needing a doctor's prescription, and Prescription only medicines (POM), which must be prescribed by a licensed medical professional, usually a physician.

In the UK, BTC medicines are called pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies, by or under the supervision of a pharmacist, these medications are designated by the letter P on the label,the precise distinction between OTC and prescription drugs depends on the legal jurisdiction.

Medications are typically produced by pharmaceutical companies and are often patented to give the developer exclusive rights to produce them, but they can also be derived from naturally occurring substance in plants called herbal medicine. Those that are not patented (or with expired patents) are called generic drugs since they can be produced by other companies without restrictions or licenses from the patent holder.

Drugs, both medicinal and recreational, can be administered in a number of ways:

* Orally, as a liquid or solid, that is absorbed through the stomach.
* Sublingually, diffusing into the blood through tissues under the tongue.
* Inhaled, (breathed into the lungs), as a vapor.
* Injected as a liquid either: intramuscular, intravenous, intraperitoneal, intraosseous.
* Rectally as a suppository, that is absorbed by the colon.
* Vaginally as a suppository, primarily to treat vaginal infections.
* Bolus, a substance into the stomach to dissolve slowly.
* Insufflation, or snorted into the nose.

Many drugs can be administered in a variety of ways.

Drug

2009-07-20T06:50:00.000-07:00

A drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal bodily function. There is no single, precise definition, as there are different meanings in drug control law, government regulations, medicine, and colloquial usage.

In pharmacology, Dictionary.com defines a drug as "a chemical substance used in the treatment, cure, prevention, or diagnosis of disease or used to otherwise enhance physical or mental well-being." Drugs may be prescribed for a limited duration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders.

Recreational drugs are chemical substances that affect the central nervous system, such as opioids or hallucinogens.They may be used for perceived beneficial effects on perception, consciousness, personality, and behavior. Some drugs can cause addiction and habituation.

Drugs are usually distinguished from endogenous biochemicals by being introduced from outside the organism. For example, insulin is a hormone that is synthesized in the body; it is called a hormone when it is synthesized by the pancreas inside the body, but if it is introduced into the body from outside, it is called a drug.

Many natural substances such as beers, wines, and some mushrooms, blur the line between food and drugs, as when ingested they affect the functioning of both mind and body.

Legal Definition of Drugs

2009-07-20T06:40:00.000-07:00

Some governments define the term drug by law. In the United States, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act definition of "drug" includes "articles intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease in man or other animals" and "articles (other than food) intended to affect the structure or any function of the body of man or other animals." Consistent with that definition, the U.S. separately defines narcotic drugs and controlled substances, which may include non-drugs, and explicitly excludes tobacco, caffeine and alcoholic beverages.